Report Writing Style and Structure Essay Example

Report Writing: Style and Structure Essay Report Writing: Style and Structure Summary Writing a report can seem daunting at first, but with a solid understanding of the fundamental structure and style used in constructing clear and concise reports, it can be achieved. The standard report format is as follows: Title, Summary, Introduction, Body, Conclusions, Recommendations, Appendix, References and Table of Contents. We will first look at how to prepare a report before the writing begins. Learning objectives At the end of the session, students will be able to: †¢ Write with a specific purpose and audience in mind †¢ Structure sentences, paragraphs and reports Write clearly and concisely Purpose and audience Before writing a report you should first identify some key factors, which will help you plan your approach and write with clarity. The first question you should ask yourself is, â€Å"what is the purpose of the report? † Purpose â€Å"What is it about, and what is it for? † It is beneficial to esta blish the purpose of your report before you start writing, so that you can think clearly on the subject, and produce a report styled to fit the needs of your purpose. Recognize what your report is for, (informing, instructing, guiding) and focus your writing on explaining the details. If for example, you want to write an instructional report for a team of colleagues, you know that you must focus your writing on providing clear concise instructions, which will allow your reader to comprehend the processes that you are describing. Audience â€Å"Who are you writing for? † The second question you should ask yourself is, â€Å"who is going to read this report and why? † Knowing your audience will help you determine how long your report should be, how it should be presented, and what level of terminology you should use to best attract and maintain the interest of your reader. We will write a custom essay sample on Report Writing: Style and Structure specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Report Writing: Style and Structure specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Report Writing: Style and Structure specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer If for example, you are writing a report to inform policy makers, you would want to focus on presenting your evidence clearly and concisely. We will now try an exercise on identifying audience and purpose: Exercise one Malaria Prevention You are a Health worker at the Ministry Of Health and have been asked to write a report on Malaria. You have access to the figures on Malaria incidents in the Country over the last five years, as well as access to the latest info on drugs and other barriers to prevent Malaria. 1. Describe the purpose of your report, and identify your audience. The sentence Now that we know how to identify our audience and define a purpose, we will look at how to write clearly and succinctly. Understanding how to structure a sentence is essential to conveying meaning clearly. Following are a few rules of thumb to help avoid ambiguous sentences: †¢ Keep it short and to the point. Many people have trouble with run-on sentences, creating ambiguity by attaching many ideas together with large combinations of commas, semicolons and dashes. Complete one thought and close out your sentence with end punctuation. †¢ Words for words sake. Avoid extraneous words, and parentheses that do not add to your point. †¢ Don’t leave it hanging. Sentence fragments can be just as confusing as run-on sentences. Make sure that you have completed your sentence and that it makes sense, before closing it out. For a comprehensive explanation of the inner workings of sentences and grammar, you can visit the links below. Sentence help: http://www2. actden. com/writ_den/tips/sentence/index. htm Grammar help: http://www. speakspeak. com/html/d10_english_grammar. htm We will now look over some common errors that can convolute sentences and obscure meaning. Sentence Fragment â€Å"Mark has finished his work on time. Since he started planning ahead. † The second sentence is a fragment here, because it does not contain enough information to complete a thought. Most sentence fragments are phrases that belong to the previous thought. To correct the problem in this instance, we simply remove the period. Correct â€Å"Mark has finished his work on time since he started planning ahead. † Run-on sentence â€Å"Jane loves Tom he is a good friend. † A run-on sentence occurs when you have two complete sentences that are not separated by correct punctuation. In this case we can correct it with a comma and a linking word, or by using a period. Correct â€Å"Jane loves Tom, because he is a good friend. † â€Å"Jane loves Tom. He is a good friend. † Exercise 2 Correct the following sentence fragments and run-on sentences. We will play Cricket tomorrow. If it doesn’t rain. In our survey we contacted 212 members of government 110 members of government responded. In order to obtain funding. You have to write clear concise reports. Michael loves to write reports he is talented at it and his wife’s name is Shelly. Structuring Sentences, Paragraphs and Reports Tell them what you’re going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you told them. † The diagram below is an excellent example on how to write clearly and logically. We will now look at each part of this â€Å"map† and then see how the pieces come together. [pic] Introduction Introductory paragraph The introduction should explain the general ideas to come, as well as your thesis statement, which tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the report. The rest of the report should gather evidence and organize a case around your thesis statement. Topic sentences A topic sentence is like a mini introduction to the body of your paragraph. Your topic sentence should explain what the body of the paragraph will cover, (just like your introduction explains what to expect in the report). It is a good idea to â€Å"map† out your report, by first writing topic sentences for each of the different paragraphs or sections of your report. 2. Body Support sentences Support sentences are the body of paragraphs. This is the section of your report that serves to provide evidence and examples that reinforce your thesis statement. Support sentences are also used to clearly explain and underpin main ideas. . Conclusion Concluding sentences The concluding sentence is used to reiterate the main points developed by the support sentences, and signal the end of a paragraph. They are also useful for adding emphasis to certain key points, through repetition. We will now look at how to create the different parts of a report outside of the general writing, which a re: Title, Summary, Recommendations, Appendix, References, and Table of Contents. Title The title is your first contact with the reader, and should inform them succinctly about what they are about to read. Summary The purpose of a summary is to provide an overview of the report. It is not necessary to give detailed information in the summary, but rather to provide an indication of the type of information that the report contains. Average summaries are between 100-150 words, and are generally written after the report has been completed, so that you know exactly what you are summarizing. Recommendations Recommendations are not an essential part of a report; however, if you are including one, it should follow from your conclusion. A brief statement clearly declaring your recommendations will suffice. Appendix An appendix contains materials that are peripheral, but relevant to your report. For example you may wish to include a glossary of terms in your appendix if you are writing a technical report for those who are not experts on the subject. You may also include copies of research tools such as questionnaires and manuals, as well as tables and diagrams that you feel would disrupt the flow of your report by breaking it up. If your appendix does contain tables, diagrams etc. , make sure to label them properly, so that the can easily be found when referenced. References If you have consulted or quoted any media sources, (print or otherwise) to help you compile your report, they must be acknowledged here, as well as in the text. Citing your resources not only avoids running into plagiarism issues, but strengthens your work by backing up your report with evidence from the work of others. If you are quoting directly from someone else, the quote must be followed by the author’s surname and date of publication in round brackets, e. g. Calvino (1983). A standard bibliography is an alphabetized list ordered by Author’s surnames. For a book you must include: the author’s surname and full name, or initials; the full title of the book; the edition (if other than the first); the place of publication; the publisher, and the date of publication, e. g. Calvino, Italo. Palomar. Torino: S. P. A. , 1983. For a complete guide to correct citation, visit: http://www. liu. edu/cwis/CWP/library/workshop/citmla. htm Table of Contents A table of contents is a page containing numbers that correspond to different parts of your report, allowing readers to jump between sections quickly. Number and title the different portions of your report, (such as â€Å"1. 2 Medical advancements in treating Malaria† â€Å"1. 3 Government funding for treating Malaria† â€Å"2. 1 References† etc. ) and then create a corresponding list of contents that lists the page number as well as the reference number, which should be sequential, starting from the summary. A good starting point for mapping out your table of contents is to do it corresponding to your topic sentences. Below is an example of a â€Å"mapped† checklist that puts all of the steps we have learned together followed by a table of contents. It is a good guidance tool to use when preparing to write a report. The â€Å"mapped† checklist is modeled on the Malaria prevention exercise we completed earlier. â€Å"Mapped† Checklist for Malaria Prevention 1. Who is it for? Health workers in district offices. 2. What is it about? Malaria prevention success stories over the last five years. 3. Title Let’s Win the Battle Against Malaria 4. Summary This report attempts to examine the benefits and drawbacks between different methods of combating malaria in Southern Africa, including rate of success, time, cost, and other socio-economic factors. 5. Introduction Exploring the methods for evaluating available options for combating malaria, and the relative successes of different options over the past five years. 6. Topic sentences 1. Insecticide treated nets have been proven to protect people from malaria, by both preventing physical contact, and killing the mosquito. 2. Community based work projects to reduce mosquito breeding grounds have been successful. 3. Indoor residual spraying remains one of the most widely used methods of vector control. 4. All of the discussed methods for the prevention of malaria work to some degree, but is it more beneficial to take a proactive or reactive stance? . What is the most successful and cost effective way to combat malaria, and how can we implement these measures? 6. With community work and adequate resources, malaria could be greatly reduced over the next decade. 7. Conclusion Having examined the different malaria prevention methods, and weighing their pros and cons, there are many possible solutions. 8. Recommendations 9. Appendix 10. References Table of Contents for Malaria Prevention ContentsPage no Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 Contents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 2. Prevention methods†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 2. 1 Insecticide treated nets†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 2. 2 Community based work projects†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 2. 3 Indoor residual spraying†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7 3. Success and Cost†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 3. 1 Proactive and reactive approaches†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 3. 2 Striking a medium between cost and success†¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 3. 3 Future success†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 4. Conclusions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 5. Recommendaions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 6. Appendix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 0 7. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 Exercise 3 Bringing it all together Now that you have an understanding of the content and structure of a report, it is time to put that knowledge to use. 1. Using one of the reports that we read last session, map out the topic sentences, then construct a table of contents. Tips for writing a report †¢ Write in plain English †¢ Select an appropriate title †¢ Use your spell checker †¢ Start writing †¢ Use your Report Map †¢ Sleep on it †¢ You don’t need to start at the beginning †¢ Be engaging †¢ Use language the will be comprehensible by your intended audience

Differences between Aristotle and Machiavelli essays

Differences between Aristotle and Machiavelli essays Differences between Aristotle and Machiavelli Of the philosophers that we have studied: Plato, Aristotle and Machiavelli, it is evident that they all have differing opinions about certain concepts. In the following paragraphs I will be discussing the different views of Aristotle and Machiavelli concerning the issues of politics and human nature. For Aristotle, a political community is one in which there are arguments and dialogues over what is advantageous and harmful, and just and unjust. The mail goal for the community is happiness for each other. Aristotle is not an idealist like Plato was. He believes that nature disposes us to set rules living in a community. For him, arguments or conflicts are what makes things run; but he sees in this the goal of construction. In short, Aristotle believes politics are worthy of pursuing and carrying out for the common good, to prevent chaos, and for happiness, virtue and equality. Contrastingly, for Machiavelli in politics the only rules that should be followed are those that help a person gain security and power. The idea of the common good is irrelevant to Machiavelli. He believes that people only go into politics for power and who ever the ruler may be; he should be forceful and manipulative. In terms of human nature, Machiavelli believes that we all came into this world naked, unprotected, insecure, and alone. He says nature provides each of us with an inclination towards evil but creates a condition of scarcity that makes each of us fundamentally alone in the universe. He thinks that human beings are selfish, antagonistic towards others and inclined to evil. It is our nature that inclines us to try and defeat others and only those things that further our power and increase our ambition are in our best interest. Machiavelli also believes that human beings are divided by reason and desire. It is natural to him that our reason obeys our desires. We are not rational an...

Global economy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global economy - Assignment Example Secondly, more information on the advantages and disadvantages of the race to the bottom needs to be incorporated. Thirdly, although the history of the concept has been given, this discussion is brief. More information needs to be added to make the reader fully understand the history of race to the bottom and how several scholars and researchers have defined it. Finally, the article needs to discuss deeply how international bodies such IMF and WTO have contributed and/or hindered the race to the bottom. The concepts covered in class and those relating to globalization have been partially incorporated in the article. For example, some of the key concepts covered include: free trade, working conditions, competition and the environment have been included. However, there are other critical elements that need to be deeply explored. For instance, one of the core components of globalization that is related to the race to the bottom is international trade. This is not explored in the article. Furthermore, the article needs to link race to bottom to concepts such as contagion, international financial institutions and foreign direct

Questioning, Battling and Identifying With Certain Types of Identities Essay

Questioning, Battling and Identifying With Certain Types of Identities throughout Lives - Essay Example The researcher states that even though the narrative â€Å"Reflections of a 17 - Year Old† is being done by an American girl who is about to embark on a college life for the first time, it still provides a valuable insight into how a person reaching the age of maturity finds himself or herself battling multiple identities. Although a person is looking forward to the independence that life brings once he Reaches College, that person is still uncertain of whether he or she can actually handle the new life he or she is entering into. In a way, Plath in the essay is speaking of how she is creating a new identity for herself once she enters college, one that will help her adjust to the demands of her new life and in the process, help her develop into a better individual as well. Plath allows us an insight into how she was feeling on the day that she realized that she was no longer a child but rather, a young adult soon to face the challenges and uncertainties of life by telling the reader: â€Å"Somehow I have to keep and hold the rapture of being 17. Every day is so precious I feel infinitely sad at the thought of all this time melting farther and farther away from me as I grow older. Now, now is the perfect time of my life.† Sylvia Plath clearly depicted the fear that every 17 years old, male or female, has about that age that is considered the turning point in every adults life. 17 is the age when one is neither a child nor an adult anymore in the eyes of the world. It is a transition age into the age of legality when people expect more mature decisions and a sense of responsibility from a teenager. It is the fear that every teenager has. That the fun and fancy-free life are once known to him or she will now be a thing of the past.

How effectively do free elections, competition between political Essay

How effectively do free elections, competition between political parties and the activities of pressure groups, ensure that the - Essay Example Competition between rival political parties provides the ground for issue-based politics and thereby offering the people an opportunity to make informed choices between the different alternatives by electing leaders who best fit the job description and espouse the interests of the majority. Nevertheless, pressure groups also play a very profound role in global politics today because they put elected leaders to task, to deliver their election pledges to the people, as well as acting as the people’s watchdog, protecting and advocating for the interests of the electorates. In that case, free elections, competition between political parties and pressure groups have significant impacts on democracy, and in particular, with the pervasive increase in both the size and number of pressure groups in the world, debates have emerged regarding implications of these factors on democracy. For instance, questions have been raised concerning whether pressure groups promote democracy or whether they undermine it by impeding election of the right leadership; this paper will evaluate the effectiveness of free elections, competition between political parties, and the activities of pressure groups, in ensuring representation of the voters. Free elections are effective in ensuring the people are represented because they capture the true will and aspirations of a majority of people, which is the true essence of democracy in a free world, without undermining their voice through undercut means such as election rigging. Precursors to free elections include an impartial administration, that ensures enrolment is open to all eligible voters and casting of the vote is reasonably accessible to all, as well as, freedom from coercion, which ensures that the electorates are not compelled to make choices (Fletcher 2007, p.2). Additionally, a free electioneering process thrives on freedom of expression and association that allows all citizens to participate in the electoral debates, and tru thful election data systems that ensures that votes are counted fairly and accurately without falsifications whatsoever. In this regard, a free election is one that genuinely reflects the will of the people, and in which votes count equally, candidates campaign freely in a level playing field without restrictive infringements; allegations of dirty tricks coupled with unfair propaganda are some of the factors that undermine a free election. Leaderships who ascent to political offices through dirty tricks and unfair propaganda will hardly represent the electorates because they are a bunch of selfish self-serving individuals who owe no allegiance to the people thus they are accountable to no one in particular. Conversely, leaders who are put into office through fair elections are an embodiment of both the will and aspirations of the people thus will represent electorates effectively, because they are accountable to them. Free elections promote representation because they are the only s ource of political elites that can articulate the interests of the people through governance and democracy, unlike in dictatorships, where leadership is imposed upon the people regardless of whether it has the support of the majority of the people or whether it serves their interests. Competition between

Marketing Strategies of Starbucks analysis

Marketing Strategies of Starbucks analysis This report will analyze the current trends in the specialty coffee segment are explained the business and marketing strategy of. Formation of successful marketing plan is the key point for a company to gain the competitive advantage over its competitors. The marketing plan evaluates the strategies currently adopting by the company. But the main theme of this report is to focus mainly on company marketing strategies with the help of SWOT Analysis, An off Growth Matrix, Boston Consulting Group Matrix, 4s. We will also try highlighting the company short term goals objectives, and how it can be achieved in the future. Starbucks coffee Company represents an excellent example of a company that has successfully marketed an experience. Moreover, its marketing strategies provide examples of positioning, image development, merchandizing, pricing, packaging, and market development. Starbucks success has helped propel the entire industry segment. The specialty gourmet coffee segment has been rapidly growing since the early 1990s. According to the specialty coffee Association, specialty coffee beverage retail outlets (gourmet coffee shops) increased over tenfold in past decade. Their locations are expected to double by 2015. The growth of this segment was stated and accelerated mainly by Starbucks coffee. Starbucks is the leader in this segment and is becoming one of the most well known international brands in the hospitality industry, as with Hilton and McDonalds. Starbucks opened its first shop in Seattle in 1971. Howard Schultz, the chairman, joined Starbucks in 1982 and introduced the Italian espresso bar concept in 1984. Becoming a public company in 1992. Starbucks accelerated the expansion of business with new capital. Starbucks has over 3,000 outlets in the United States and internationally and is rapidly opening new stores via joint ventures with local companies. Now Starbucks is the biggest coffeehouse chain in the Globe with 8,505 company-owned and 6,505 licensed stores in 42 countries, making a total of 15,011 stores worldwide. Starbucks sells espresso-based hot drink, drip brewed coffee fruit bottled, coupled with pastries, snacks, salads, coupled with sandwiches soups, other cold and hot drink. Competency of star bucks: To summarize, Starbucks has a high reputation for quality because of the following: The company goes to extreme lengths to buy the very finest Arabica coffees available on world markets, regardless of price. The companys freshness and quality are legendary. Beans that are held in bins for more than a week are donated to charity. Every piece of coffee-brewing equipment that is sold has been tested and evaluated. Each Starbucks employee is extensively trained to ensure that customers receive knowledgeable service. Mission Statement: To establish Starbucks as the premier purveyor of the finest coffee in the world while maintaining our uncompromising principles as we grow. The following six Guideline Principles will help us measure the appropriateness of our decisions: Provide a great work environment and treat each other with respect and dignity. Embrace diversity as an essential component in the way we do business. Apply the highest standard of excellence to the purchasing roasting and fresh delivery of our customer. Develop enthusiastically satisfied customer all of the time. Contribute positively to our communities and our environment. Recognize that profitability is essential to our future success. Starbucks has the following core values: Provide a great work environment and treat each other with respect and dignity. Embrace diversity as an essential component in the way we do business. Apply the highest standards of excellence to the purchasing, roasting and fresh delivery of our coffee. Develop enthusiastically satisfied customers all of the time. Contribute positively to our communities and our environment. Focus all resources to their coffee shop operation because they want to best serve for their customer. Encourage new and innovative ideas akin to maintain competitive growth. Dedicated thier self to continuous achievement in sales, profit and size of organization Market Demographics: The profile for the starbucks customer consists of the following geographic, demographic, and behavior factors: Geographic: The geographic survey may include the identification of total number of population, in society and total number of target customer in which you are operating (Lanchester, Massingham, Ashford 2002). The immediate geographic target market for starbucks is the total population of the UK which is 60,776,238 approximately. The specific targeted market of Starbucks is mostly the Employee of offices, students of schools, colleges, and universities. Demographics: Targeting adults and young adults is a good mechanism for Starbucks because this age level has the same interests as the foundation that promotes arts, culture, education, and the environment (starbucks.com). The company satisfies their customers through their advertising, support programs and, of course, their coffee. Psychographic: The people who want to enjoy a totally different coffee experience, they go to starbucks as it is positioned a completely different coffee shop. MARKET NEEDS: Starbucks has still succeed in providing a good quality coffee in wide rang plus snacks option for their cusotmer.Starbucks looking for perform the following benefits that are important to their customers: Selection: Starbucks want to excel on their competitors theory make easy availability of coffee and snacks in all of its shop, which not available at the larger, dominant coffee chains. Accessibility: Almost all kinds of coffee are exist from starbucks centrally located storefront. Customer service: The client will be daunted with the level of attention that they receive. Competitive pricing: Because it is highly competitive market, so the price of all range of coffee and other products should be price competitive. SITUATION ANALYSIS OF STARBUCKS: The company situation analysis is used at the business level to determine the strategic issues and problems that need to be addressed through the next three steps of the strategic planning process. Starbucks has own very good different kinds of strength to dominant in this industry make it to differentiate to others one in this market. This are the strength, those help starbucks to achieve their targets and desire goals. These are the stratbucks some important characteristics or strengths. STRENGHTS: Strong Brand Recognition Large retail distribution system Quality product Extensive product list Good supplier relationship Strong financial history Strong human resources WEAKNESSES: Even though starbucks posses a number of strengths but it also has some weakness too. starbucks needs to overcome on and deal them for remaining the top position in this competitive market. These are the s following list of starbucks weaknesses: Dependence on single source of business income Prices high relative to competition Strong dependence on suppliers Merchandise sales in stores OPPORTUNITIES: It is a fact that every company who enter in the market must have different kind of opportunities prevails in market. This is the important, how to recognize and make to strategy to acquire them, acquiring these opportunities is called success of company. Starbucks can more successes in market if they will be able to act upon these opportunities accordingly. The following new opportunities can help starbucks to success more in the future in the way of their business. Expansion into overseas markets Expansion into untapped U.K and worldwide markets Expansion of brand name into new products or business lines THREATS: Nobody knows about tomorrow. Especially for nowadays circumstances, world is changing dramatically. Some new threats are prevailing in the market with full swing of their effectiveness. Despite the fact of strong position of strabucks in the market, they are still need to keep eye on these threat get strong positioning and branding. These are the list of some very common internally and externally threats. Economic conditions may make consumers unwilling to pay high prices Political conditions abroad may limit expansion Increasing competition in coffee market May be reaching saturation point in some U.S markets Increase prices of raw material for coffee and other stuff BOSTON CONSULTING GROUP (BCG) MATRIX: In the mid-1960s the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) was founded to provide advice to strategic marketing planners. BCG developed a simple but useful strategic planning technique based on an analysis of a company product portfolio. The technique entail assigning each individual product of an organization to one of four possible cells in simple matrix according to the relative market share and rate of market growth associated with that particular product/business. (Essential of Marketing, Geoff, Lester, Ashford, 4th Ed, p382) In the BCG matrix, star quadrant is the most dominant place where the companies enjoy the high market growth and high market share. Thats why every company wants to stay in star quadrant. As STARBUCKS coffee shop is the renowned coffee chain in the world, thats why it clearly lies in the (STAR QUADRANT High Growth + High Share) because the annual sales of the company in last financial year 2009 are US $ 9.774 Million, moreover the coffee shop enjoying the highest market share as well in the coffee industry. ANSOFFS GROWTH MATRIX: An off has proposed the idea of product. Market scope to aid in the formulation and selection of strategies, particularly for those companies with growth objectives. The basic framework of this approach is the matrix comprises market on the vertical axis and on the horizontal axis products. In turn, each axis is subdivided into existing and new. Each cell of the matrix is form a different strategic alternative for achieving growth. (Essential of Marketing, Geoff, Lester, Ashford, 4th Ed, p380) In the ANSOFF growth matrix, the STARBUCKS coffee shop lies in the (MARKET EXPENSION Existing Product + New Market), because company is making very good profit in almost every coffee shop in different location of the world. Expending its coffee market in Middle East, and Asia could be very helpful for the companys profit because there is huge potential for the coffee market as there is no famous coffee shops in that part of the world. Just like recently they have opened their two coffee shops, one in China and other is in Kuwait. MARKETING MIX STRATEGY FOR STARBUCKS: The term marketing mix is attributed to the American Neil H. Borden and has been touched on several times in earlier chapters. As we have seen, the marketing mix consists of those marketing tools over which the marketer has control and therefore can vary in order to achieve overall marketing objective and strategies. (Essential of Marketing, Geoff, Lester, Ashford, 4th Ed, p380) In order to make appropriate strategies for gaining customers preferences and their loyalty, we need to understand as to how STARBUCKS Marketing Mix or 4 Ps have enabled the company to achieve superior customer satisfaction, and also in building a long-term relationship with its customers. Following are the some recommendations for STARBUCKS in relation with marketing mix: Frame Work of marketing Mix PRODUCT: Product is the bundle of benefits which the supplier offers to the purchaser. The particular set of benefits on offer will appeal to specific group of consumers: it is extremely unlikely that any product will appeal to everyone. Even products such as Coca-Cola, which is sold worldwide and is the worlds most recognized brand name has only a minority share of the soft drinks market. Many people simply dont like it, or think it is too expensive, or prefer other drinks which meet their needs better. Attempts to create a perfect product which suits everybody are likely to result in over complex, over expansive products, which is why product orientation has fallen into dispute. Decision that address the new product development process(innovation management), licensing strategies with potential partners, intellectual property rights, services provided to augment the revenue stream from base products product name/brand decisions ,development of complementary products by partners, creation of industry standards, packaging, and so forth, the critical need is to develop a stream of products with the right set of features to satisfy customer needs in a compelling yet simple fashion.( jakki j. Mohr, Sanjit Sengupta, Stanley Slater,2000, p7) In Starbucks they made purely their products to satisfying the needs of the customer, and they made coffee with the finest coffee ingredients of the world. The different range of coffee and snacks offered by STARBUCKS are as follow: ESPRESSO: Coffee Latte, Cappuccino, Vanilla Latte, Coffee Americano, Espresso COFFEE HOUSE FAVOURITES Caramel Hot Chocolate, Coffee Misto, Classic Hot Chocolate, Signature Hot Chocolate, Freshly Brewed coffee FRAPPUCCINO: Cinnamon Dolce, Java Chip, Espresso, Coffee, Caramel SPRING FAVOURITES: Cinnamon Dolce Latte, Caramel Macchiato PRICE: Price is the total cost the customers of buying the product. It therefore goes beyond the simple monetary costs: customers also consider the difficulty of purchase, the cost of ownership of the product, and even the embarrassment factor of owing the wrong brand. Some product has psychological association which customers find costly. (Essential of Marketing, Geoff, Lester, Ashford, 4th Ed, p380) Decisions that establish price points for the company products, and address issues related cost to produce/manufacturer the good, margins along the distribution channel, competitors prices (pricing relative to a specific firm market position), customer value, total cost of ownership for the customer, price for product bundles, and profitability.( .( jakki j. Mohr, Sanjit Sengupta, Stanley Slater,2000, p8). Price is the only element of the marketing mix that produces revenue, As such; it serves a tactical as well as an economic role for an organization 9Holloway and Robison 1995). The price charged sends many signals about the likely value of the product being offered and, as such, must be commensurate with the quality of experience, Starbuckss product prices are relative high than others, because they target those people of society who give the preference on quantity. Following are the some prices of STARBUCKS famous products: ESPRESSO: Tall Grande Vent Coffee Latte  £2.05p  £2.40p  £2.65p Cappuccino  £2.05p  £2.40p  £2.65p Vanilla Latte  £2.35  £2.70p  £2.95p Coffee Americano  £1.75p  £1.90p  £2.05p Espresso  £1.20p  £1.40p  £1.55p COFFEE HOUSE FAVOURITES Caramel Hot Chocolate  £2.90p  £3.25p  £3.50p Coffee Misto  £1.95p  £2.35p  £2.55p Classic Hot Chocolate  £2.20p  £2.50p  £2.80p Signature Hot Chocolate  £2.65p  £3.00p  £3.25p Freshly Brewed coffee  £1.65p  £1.75p  £1.90p FRAPPUCCINO: Cinnamon Dolce  £3.05p  £3.25p  £3.45p Java Chip  £3.05p  £3.25p  £3.45p Espresso  £2.65p  £2.85p  £3.05p Coffee  £2.50p  £2.70p  £2.90p Caramel  £3.05p  £3.25p  £3.45p SPRING FAVOURITES: Cinnamon Dolce Latte  £2.70p  £3.05P  £3.30P Caramel Macchiato  £2.70P  £3.05P  £3.30P PLACE: Place is the location where the exchange takes place. This may be a retail store, it may be a catalogue, it maybe a restaurant, or it may be a website. Deciding on the appropriate place for the exchange is not merely a matter of movie goods around but is rather a strategic issue. The decisions revolve around making it as easy as possible for customers to find the good and make the purchase, and also using channels which give the appropriate image for the product. For example, retailing a product through discount stores gives a completely different impression from retailing a product through discount stores gives a completely different impression from retailing the same product through exclusive department stores. (Essential of Marketing, Geoff, Lester, Ashford, 4th Ed, p380) Now in case of Starbucks they mainly build their stores in the prime location of the city where they can easily attracts their desired customers who really want to enjoy the taste of coffee. Just like in UK they build their stores mainly in the shopping malls and town centers, Amusements Park, stadiums, airports etc. Now it is the need of the time that they should be concentrate to open their more stores in Middle East and Asia. PROMOTION: Promotion is such a large part of marketing that it is often mistaken for the whole of marketing. Promotion encompasses all the communication activities of marketing: advertising, public relations, and sales promotions, personal selling, and so forth. Promotion is not simply a hard sell, however: it is a way of meeting customers information needs, at least in part. It is also, to an extent, persuasive in that most marketing communication emphasis the good aspects of owning products and downplay the bad aspects. Starbucks nearly spends  £4.7 million every year for promotions. It is include the cost of print media, electronic media, indoor, outdoor media etc. The companys latest stunning plan is the Starbucks Card. You buy a re-chargeable card in the UK which can be used at coffee bars in the US, Canada, Australia and Thailand. The card will enhance the Starbucks experience for customers allowing them to buy their daily cup of coffee quickly and easily, even when they are not carrying cash. Recently company through an agreement between Starbucks, and T-Mobile the two companies have come up with a way to provide internet access at Starbucks location and high speed broadband for Starbucks customers as well. In addition, T-Mobile hot spot customers get to use the Starbucks stores as they do now. Moreover Starbucks spends millions of dollars internationally to protect the environment and global warming. DIVERCIFICATION: The major reason for a business adopting a strategy of diversification is therefore to allow it to reduce its dependence upon a single market area (W. Stewart Howe 1986 p 153). At a general strategic level An off suggests three reasons why firms diversify. First, their objectives cannot be achieved by continuing to operate in their existing markets. Thus, since continued operation in these markets is not able to diversify the profit, risk or growth objectives of the business, achievement of these must be sought in new market areas. Second, where a business has excess financial resources beyond those necessary to satisfy its expansion plan in its existing markets, then rather than retain these resources in liquid form of business may invest them in new markets areas. Third, if greater opportunities are presented to the firm in new market areas than accrue from its existing activities. Then a diversification program may be undertaken to benefit from these. There are tw o types of diversifications: RELATED DIVERSIFICATION UN-RELATED DIVERSICATION RELATED DIVERSIFICATION: Expending combining with firms in different, but related industry that are Strategic Fits. UNRELATED DIVERSIFICATION: Growing by combining with firms in un-related industries, where higher financial returns are possible. Now, if Starbucks want to diversify its business outside the industry, then the company should start a totally new business that is not from the same industry. For example Starbucks is a coffee shop, if they enter in the manufacturing business and start making cars, bikes etc that will be the perfect example of diversification. But the main focus of the Starbucks should be on their strategic business unit which is coffee shop. If they want to diversify their business within the same industry i.e. related diversification, then the Starbucks should combine their business with their competitors to launch new products. INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES: The franchiser/licenser remembers to provide a standard package of components, or ingredients together with management and marketing services, and advice. Since franchising involves the transfer of tangible, it can enable greater control of the operation for the originating manufacturer than licensing (Lancaster Massing ham Ashford 2002 p 437). Starbucks currently use three strategies for business in overseas. These strategies are as follow: 1: Joint ventures 2: Licenses 3: Company-Owned Operations. Mainly the company uses the company-owned shops for the business in other countries. RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE MARKETING PLAN OF STARBUCKS (3 YEARS): By analyzing the above whole information such as Swot analysis, An off analysis, BCG matrix, marketing mix, following should be the primary objectives of the marketing plan of Starbucks coffee shop for next 3 years: GOALS OR OBJECTIVES: Sales should be increased by 15 to 20% at least. In order to get increased sales, they should increase Gross Profit margin by 25%. Find more new markets especially in Middle East, and Asia. More strengthen their position as a worldwide coffee shop leader. Increase marketing budget by 15% In order to achieve the above future objectives, the Starbucks coffee shop should follow instructions: INTRODUCE SOME NEW PROMOTIONS: As Starbucks introduced a stunning promotion plan that is Starbucks re-chargeable card for purchasing coffee whether you have money or not at that time. Just like that company should develop a membership card especially for the students. Some discount should be offer to regular customer, and student to increase the detainment. NEW TARGER MARKETS: To maintain the top position in the coffee market, Starbucks should go and find some new coffee potential market. Just like there is great potential of new coffee shop especially in Asia, and Middle East, as there is no famous coffee shop. Where they can capture in new market, and got some handsome profit as well. MAINTAIN SUSTAINABLE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE: The Starbucks coffee shop should maintain the competitive advantage that it has got over other coffee shops. In order to maintain leading position in the coffee market, the Starbucks should introduce innovative products after good intervals. INTRODUCE SOME INNOVATIVE PRODUCTS: To maintain the dominant position in the coffee market, it is necessary for the Starbucks that, they should introduce some really innovative products after good intervals. The induction of new products creates the brand loyalty among the customers. INCREASE MARKETING BUDGET: In any company market department play a vital rule in increasing the sales plus revenue. So It is very essential for the Starbucks to full fill the requirement of its Marketing Department whether its finically or non financially. So that they can performed its task potentially. Moreover they are some other resources too, thorough which a Starbucks increase the sales revenue. For example, they should conduct promotions Events, Held seminars and get the services of Global celebrities. DIVERCIFY THE BUSINESS: Diversification is a very important tool for maintaining overall position in any market. Starbucks cannot rely through limited niches products. They have to adopt t Diversification. Diversify the business in product-related items, or unrelated items to increase their revenues. IMPROVE THE PRODUCT QUALITY: To maintain the superb quality and taste of different products in Starbucks, the company should adopt the Total Quality Management tool, which means improve the products quality until the perfection, and there is no defect on product or zero defect products. EMPLOYEES TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT: Training and development of employees is an important task for the management in order to enhance the progress of company, and increase the sales, and produce the error free services. EMPLOYEES MOTIVATIONS: Employees motivation is very important for every organization to get good profit, and in order to maintain its position in the market. Good pay, and reward system is the best tool to motivate the employees. So Starbucks should try to give good pay and benefits to their employees during the job.

Graduation Speech: Do or Do Not, There is No Try :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

The year 2012 marks an era of new beginnings and bold adventures. Years from now, when we look back on our senior year, we’ll remember a year of good friends, hard work and planning for the future. As graduating seniors we will create different paths to our own success. Some will choose the superhighway and some will choose the winding road — each person deciding their own level of happiness. It has been said, "To know where you are going, one must remember where you have been." Tonight, the Class of 2012 will start a new chapter, moving toward new endeavors and taking on greater challenges, making this evening the perfect time to reflect on our past here at County High School. As we look back on our senior year, we will remember it as the year the voters of Stoll passed a new school bond creating the promise of a new high school. The year our girls’ basketball team went to state, and our football team went undefeated in league. We will remember the cold, wet nights in the stands watching football; the cold, wet nights in the stands watching soccer and well, ... you get the idea. We will remember working endless nights creating our homecoming floats. Maybe not Rose Bowl Parade material, but they did manage to roll, and we had fun! Laughing at each other and laughing with each other, we have had a great time together. Let us not forget the Lawn Chair Drill Team practices at O Dark Hundred — the Tolo dance and the Senior Prom. And on a personal note, a great 18th birthday — Thanks, guys! Tonight as we go our separate ways, let’s not forget that we have the ability to be whatever we want to be. To climb mountains, to reach the stars, to stretch as far as we can imagine.

Hydraulics and Hydrology Lec

48362 – HYDRAULICS and HYDROLOGY James E Ball – Hydrology Component SUBJECT DETAILS 1 CONTACTS ? Assoc Prof James Ball ? ? ? james. [email  protected] edu. au ph – 9514 2623 Office Hours ? ? Monday 2:00 – 4:00pm Contact by email for appointment SUBJECT CONCEPT The objective of this component of the subject is: ? Introduce engineering hydrology; ? Introduce hydrological processes; ? Introduce flood estimation; and ? Introduce engineering hydrology applications in water resources management. 2 SUBJECT CONCEPT This introduction is aimed at: ? Providing an ability to apply commonly used methods in hydrology; and ?Provide an understanding of the theory behind these methods. REFERENCES Three references that may be useful are ? Applied Hydrology – Chow, Maidment & Mays, McGraw-Hill Book Co. ? Hydrology An Australian Introduction – Ladson, Oxford University Press ? Australian Rainfall & Runoff – A Guide to Flood Estimation – Engineers Australia No published Course Notes are available for this subject. 3 SUBJECT DOCUMENTS UTS-Online will be used for distribution of ? Copies of lecture slides; ? Reading material; and ? Tutorial problems. Students should note that additional reference books may be noted in the lecture slides.LECTURE STRUCTURE Each Hydrology lecture period will comprise: ? 2 hour lecture; and ? 1 hour tutorial. It is expected that students will have accessed the lecture slides, reading material and tutorials prior to the lecture period. 4 SUBJECT TIMETABLE Date Topic 27 February Hydrology and Water Resources 5 March Meteorology 12 March Hydrologic Data 19 March Surface Water 27 March Storm Runoff 2 April Hydrologic Design 9 April Design Rainfall 1 May Peak Flow Estimation 7 May Hydrograph Estimation – Part 1 13 May Hydrograph Estimation – Part 2 14 May Environmental Flows 21 May Water Sensitive Urban Design 4 JuneCourse Review HYDROLOGIC CYCLE Lecture 1 5 CONTENT ? Introduction to Hydr ology ? Development of Hydrology ? Hydrologic Cycle ? Australian Hydrology INTRODUCTION 6 DEFINITION OF HYDROLOGY Greek word: Hydor => water & ology => study of Hydraulics comes from Greek word hydraulikos which in turn comes from hydor (Greek for water) and aulos (meaning pipe). DEFINITION OF HYDROLOGY UNESCO (1979)1 defines hydrology as â€Å"the physical science which treats the waters of the Earth, their Occurrence, Circulation and Distribution, their Chemical and Physical Properties, and their Reaction with the Environment†. UNESCO, (1979), Impact of urbanisation and industrialisation on water resources planning and management, Studies and Reports in Hydrology, UNESCO, UNESCO, Paris. 7 WATER Water is essential for maintenance of life. Early civilisations were concentrated on rivers ? ? establishment of settlements near rivers analogous to looking for signs of water on Mars Management of water is multi-disciplinary; many professions are involved. WATER Variety of problems encountered include ? Flood mitigation ? Sanitary sewer systems ? Land drainage ? Water Supply ? Culvert and bridge design ? Environmental Flows ? Erosion ?Mine tailings ? Drought ? Adaptation to climate change ? Irrigation systems ? Hydro-electric and power generation ? Stormwater systems 8 RURAL FLOODING URBAN FLOODS 9 STORMWATER STRUCTURES STORMWATER DRAINS 10 WATER SUPPLY HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER 11 IRRIGATION SCHEMES DROUGHT 12 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Ancient civilisations were integrated with their river valleys. Examples are ? ? ? ? ? Egyptian Civilisations and the Nile Valley Mesopotamian Civilisations and the TigrisEuphrates Indian Civilisations and the Indus Valley Ancient China and the Yellow River Andean Civilisations and Coastal Peru DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGYMany of structures from early civilisations are still in operation. Large scale irrigation and drainage works were associated with these civilisations. Earliest recorded dam is about 2900BC (the Sadd Al-Kafara at Wadi Al-Garawi, 25km south of Cairo) Used for both flood protection and irrigation. Also site of earliest known dam failure. 13 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Oldest surviving dam in the world is the Grand Anicut Dam on the Kaveri River in Southern India. This structue dates back to 2nd Century AD. DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Water supply to Ancient Rome has been estimated as being approx 500L/c/d.Current water supply requirements are ? ? ? Australian cities, design – approx. 430L/c/d Australian cities, actual – approx. 230L/c/d US cities, design – approx 600L/c/d Drainage structures (such as the Cloaca Maxima) from Ancient Rome are still being used today. 14 ANCIENT ROMANS Cloaca maxima Bath, UK AQUEDUCTS Pont du Gard, France c19 BC Hampi, India 1st century AD 15 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Flood protection has been practiced for thousands of years along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. It remains an issue of concern in these areas to the current day. DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Wat er has been of interest for many years.Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers speculated on a hydrologic cycle – Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Lucretius, Seneca, Pliny. This cycle was developed from their observations of water in their environment. Use of observations remains a fundamental component of current hydrologic applications and research. 16 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Chinese recorded observations of rain ? ? ? An-yang oracle bones as early as 1200BC; Used rain gauges around 1000BC; and Established systematic records about 200BC. Indian records date back to 400BC. DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Scientific development of hydrology occurred uring the Renaissance period. Examples are ? ? ? Leonardo da Vinci – velocity distributions in streams. Bernard Palissy – springs originated from rainfall. Pierre Perrault – runoff is a fraction of rainfall. 17 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Other contributions during this period were made by ? ? ? ? ? Galileo Newton Bernoulli Euler Lagrange DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY Significant scientific development occurred in the 19th Century when ? ? ? ? ? Dalton proposed the principle of evaporation. Hagen-Poiseuille described capillary flow. Mulvaney developed the Rational method. Darcy described mathematically porous media low. Rippl developed methods for determining storage requirements. 18 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROLOGY 20th Century saw rapid development of quantitative hydrology. Biggest influence during this period was the development of the digital computer and the development of catchment modelling systems. Limitation now is data availability rather than calculation capacity. HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 19 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE One of the fundamental cycles of nature. Basis for the science of hydrology. Important points ? ? ? ? Cycle has no start and no end. Cycle is continuous. Flow of water in the cycle is not continuous.Water moves erratically through the cycle. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE 20 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE 21 HYDROL OGICAL CYCLE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE General components of the cycle are ? Atmospheric Water ? Surface Water ? Ground Water In analysis of water resource problems, these components are treated with a systems approach. 22 SYSTEMS CONCEPT A systems concept is applied when considering the hydrological cycle or some component thereof. This is consistent with the reductionist concept used in many engineering problems. SYSTEMS CONCEPT The reductionist philosophy is based on reducing the system to a number of smaller omponents. The response of the system then is determined from summation of the responses of the individual components. 23 SYSTEMS CONCEPT WATER BALANCE 24 WATER BALANCE Amount of water does not change. Where it may be found does change. Water maybe found in the seas and oceans, in the atmosphere, on the surface, below the surface, and in biological systems. WATER BALANCE ITEM Oceans Polar Ice Groundwater Lakes Soil Moisture Atmospheric Water Rivers Biological Water ?Water VOLUME (k m3) % TOTAL WATER 1. 338 x 109 96. 5 24. 0 x 106 1. 7 23. 4 x 106 1. 69 187. 9 x 103 0. 0138 16. 5 x 103 0. 0012 12. 9 x 103 . 001 2. 1 x 103 0. 0002 1. 1 x 103 0. 0001 1. 386 x 109 100. 0 UNESCO, 1978 – ref 11, ladson ch1 25 WATER BALANCE Not all water is freshwater. Only approx 2. 5% of the water is fresh water – water in the oceans and some lake water and ground water is saline. Considering only fresh water, the values in the previous table are modified to WATER BALANCE UNESCO, 1978 ITEM VOLUME (km3) % TOTAL WATER Polar Ice 24. 0 x 106 68. 6 Groundwater 23. 4 x 106 30. 1 103 0. 26 Soil Moisture 16. 5 x 103 0. 05 Atmospheric Water 103 0. 04 Rivers 2. 1 x 103 0. 006 Biological Water 1. 1 x 103 0. 003 Fresh Water 35. 0 x 106 00. 0 Lakes 187. 9 x 12. 9 x 26 WATER BALANCE Basis of any volume based problem is a water balance. This is a usage of the concept of continuity. In general, application of continuity gives in volume terms Inflow – Outflow = Change in Stora ge (? S) And in flux terms Qi – Qo = ? S / ? t WATER BALANCE Components of inflow for a water body such as a lake or reservoir are ? Precipitation (P) ? Inflow from rivers or groundwater (I) 27 WATER BALANCE Components of outflow for a water body such as a lake or reservoir are ? Evapo-transpiration (ET); ? Outflows – Extractions, Downstream flows, (O); and ? Seepage (G)WATER BALANCE Hence the water balance for a water body is P + I – O – ET – G = ? S 28 WATER FLOWS While the volume of water in a source is important, the flux of water through a component is important also. An indication of the flux can be obtained from the diagram of the hydrological cycle. WATER FLOWS The Global Annual Water Balance is shown on in units relative to the annual volume of precipitation on land masses. Note that this is a flow rate (km3/yr). 29 WATER FLOWS ? Precipitation ? ? ? ? Land – 119,000 km3/yr (800mm/yr) Ocean – 458,000 km3/yr (1270mm/yr) Total à ¢â‚¬â€œ 577,000 km3/yr Evaporation ? ? ?Land – 72,000 km3/yr (484mm/yr) Ocean – 505,000 km3/yr (1400mm/yr) Total – 577,000 km3/yr WATER FLOWS ? Runoff to Oceans ? ? ? Rivers – 44,700 km3/yr Groundwater – 2,200 km3/yr Total Runoff – 47,000 km3/yr (316mm/yr) 30 WATER FLOWS Considering the volume and flux gives the mean residence times in a particular source. The mean residence time for atmospheric water is obtained by dividing the volume (S) of water in the atmosphere by the flux (Q), ie TR ? S 12,900 ? ? 0. 022 yr ? 8. 2days Q 577,000 WATER FLOWS ITEM Oceans Polar Ice & Glaciers Groundwater Lakes Soil Moisture Rivers Atmosphere Biological WaterTR 2600 years 1100 years 700 years 13 years 155 days 13 days 8. 2 days 3. 4 days 31 AUSTRALIAN CLIMATE AUSTRALIAN CLIMATE â€Å"†¦of droughts and flooding rains† 32 RIVER RUNOFF Australia has low runoff per unit area (average depth of surface runoff). Also, Australian runoff has greater vari ability due to lack of snow melt period. RAINFALL COMPARISON Variability of Annual rainfall 20 18 Coefficient (%) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 A ustralia S. A frica Germany France NZ India UK Canada China USA Russia Country 33 AUSTRALIAN CLIMATE CLIMATE CLASSIFICATIONS Marked wet summer and dry winter of northern Australia.Wet summer and low winter rainfall of southeast QLD and northeast NSW. Uniform rainfall in southeast Australia. Wet winter and dry summer of southwest WA and parts of the southeast. Arid area comprising about half of the continent More on BoM website 34 AUSTRALIAN RAINFALL Pluviometer Network Daily Read Network PRECIPITATION 35 AUSTRALIAN RAINFALL City Average Annual Rainfall (mm) Average Number of Rain Days Darwin 1714 111 Sydney 1217 138 Brisbane 1149 122 Perth 786 114 Melbourne 653 147 Canberra 623 105 Hobart 569 135 Adelaide 530 121 Alice Springs 279 31 After Ladson, 2008 AUSTRALIAN CONDITIONSAustralian rainfall is influenced by general circulation patterns. Most of Australia is around 30o latitude which tend to be areas of descending air. Note – that the solar equator moves during the year. 36 AUST. CLIMATE VARIABILITY Known major causes Approximate time scale Effect Synoptic weather patterns Day / week â€Å"Weather† Southern Annular Mode Weeks +ve phase => winter rainfall deficiencies in southern Australia; summer increases in MDB El Nino / La Nina (Southern Oscillation Index) Inter-annual El nino => lower rainfalls La nina => higher rainfalls Indian Ocean Dipole Inter-annual ve phase => increased rainfall +ve phase => decreased rainfall Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation Inter-decadal Flip flops between drier and wetter periods e. g. 1st half of 20th century wetter than 2nd half The Australian climate – influences http://www. bom. gov. au/watl/about-weather-and-climate/australian-climate-influences. html 37 The Australian climate – influences The Australian climate – topography 38 Seasonal rainfall variatio n across the country Seasonal rainfall variation across the country Mean rainfall – Katherine mm Mean rainfall – Dubbo mm 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 0 0 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 J F M A M J J A S O N J D F Mean rainfall – Alice Springs mm M A M J A S O N D Mean rainfall – Sydney mm 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 J 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O S O N N D Mean rainfall – Perth mm Mean rainfall – Strahan mm 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Perth wind rose February J F M A M J J A D Rainfall variability – a comparison Annual rainfall – Birdsville mm 600 400 200 2000 1980 1960Annual rainfall – Bourke mm Annual rainfall – Perth 1940 1920 1900 0 mm 1000 1400 1200 800 1000 600 800 600 400 400 200 200 1980 1960 1940 1920 1900 1980 19 60 1940 1920 1900 1880 1880 0 0 39 NSW annual rainfall time-series New South Wales Annual Rainfall 1000 900 Dry Period: 1900 – 1946 Average Rainfall: 477. 7mm *Dry conditions commenced 1890 Standard Deviation: 90. 4 Wet Period: 1947 – 2000 Average Rainfall: 573. 9mm 20. 1% increase Standard Deviation: 127. 0 800 New Dry 2001/06 439. 5mm 23. 4% decline Rainfall (mm) 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year 40

Poetic Literature: the 10 Plagues

God in this time period and now is a very powerful being. He has the knowledge of what is good and what is evil. Pharaoh in the book of Exodus tests God’s patience and power by continuing to deceive him as well as Moses, and Aaron. In this paper I plan to compare and contrast the ten plagues in the bible, Exodus 7:14-12:36 with Psalms 78:44-51 and 105:28-36 as well as explain how the authors of each psalm view the story of the plagues. In Exodus, it speaks about how the Pharaoh is unyielding to letting the Egyptian slaves go free so that they can worship to God. God initially had send Moses, who was made like God to the Pharaoh, and Aaron, Moses’ prophet, to warn Pharaoh to let God’s people go. Each and every time this request was asked of Pharaoh, he would lie about freeing his slaves, then, harden his heart and change his mind. This made God very angry and this is how the plagues began. The first plague started with the River Nile being turned into blood. This was God’s initial idea of getting Pharaoh to do what he wants and by removing the source of water would surely get his attention. However, that was not the case and the Pharaoh’s heart hardened. This pattern between God, Moses, Aaron, and the Pharaoh continued throughout nine more plagues after the first. The plagues that occurred after the Nile River turning into blood were frogs, gnats, flies, livestock/pestilence, boils, hail, locusts, darkness, and finally the death of the first born of every living being and animal in Egypt. The final plague is what we now know as Passover. I noticed in the first Psalm account of the ten plagues (Ps. 78:44-51), only seven of the ten plagues were mentioned. It started with turning the river into blood, followed by a swarm of flies, frogs, then locusts, hail, the killing of livestock, and finally the killing of the firstborn of every human and animal of Egypt. This psalm only has eight stanzas and if you notice the plagues are not in the same order as the ones in the book of Exodus. Instead of using the words gnats (used in Exodus) that word is replaced with caterpillars. The plagues of boils and darkness were not used in this Psalm also. Psalms 78:44-51 is of a Yahwistic narrative. God seems like a parental figure so to speak. It seems like it is just punishment because of the Pharaoh’s ignorance and his follower’s obliviousness. Like parents with children if one child messes up, the other siblings tend to feel part of the punishment as well and this is what I feel happened to the people of Egypt. The Yahwist tradition basically explains the relationship between God and man and to present sin and how man should be like God. Also, there is a level of communication that shows the relationship between human beings and God; a level of closeness and relationship growth. In the second account of the plagues in Psalm 105:28-36, this too is not in the same order as the ones in Exodus. It starts off with God sending darkness over the land then turning the river into blood, followed by a swarm of frogs, flies, gnats, hail, livestock, locusts, and again ending with the killing of the first born of every human and animal in Egypt. This Psalm has nine stanzas and this time boils was the only plague not used. To compare to the plagues in Exodus there is one way communication to show that God is all powerful and we are to never think that we are greater than him. For example, In Ex. 7:6, God directs Moses and Aaron to take a message to the Pharaoh and they did just as the Lord asked. Psalms 105:28-36 is written in a priestly fashion. The priestly narrative speaks on how angry God was and says that he did not spare anyone’s lives and left them all in the hands of the plague and the company of the destroying angels. It makes it seem like God in this psalm is mean with no remorse for anyone – monster like. To conclude, I feel that historical accuracy is equally important to ancient writers as well as the readers who choose to read their script. In the case of the plagues and the two psalm accounts relating to them, I think the reason why Ex. 7:14-12:36 and the two Ps. 78:44-51 and 105:28-36, are not in agreement in terms of order and number is because they were written by two authors with different views. I think that creating different versions of the same story is not a major problem for the biblical editors because it is nice to read a story and have the opportunity to see it in two different perspectives so that you can draw your own conclusion.

Excessive accumulation of body fat Essay Example

Excessive accumulation of body fat Essay Example Excessive accumulation of body fat Essay Excessive accumulation of body fat Essay Introduction Fleshiness may be defined as a status in which there is an inordinate accretion of organic structure fat to province in which the wellness of the patient is compromised. It consequences from an instability between energy consumption and energy outgo. Assorted factors such as environmental and familial factors can lend to fleshiness. Environmental factors comprises of handiness of high Calorie diet or sedentary life style, whereas familial factors comprises of constituents such as household history of obesity.1 Fleshiness is associated with a big figure of wellness jobs, both independently and in association with other diseases such as type 2 diabetes, CHD. Besides that, it besides causes an increased incidence of certain signifiers of malignant neoplastic disease, clogging slumber apnoea and osteoarthritis.2 The organic structure mass index ( BMI ) gives a step of comparative weight and is normally used for placing persons at increased hazard of morbidity and mortality from fleshiness ( Table 1 ) . The anatomical distribution of organic structure fat, with cardinal ( splanchnic ) adiposeness transporting a greater wellness hazard than peripheral. For this ground, the measuring of the waist perimeter in centimeters ( Table 2 ) can be a utile method for placing clinical hazards associated with obesity.1 With an increased figure of people being corpulent, the authorities s Foresight programme shows that over half of the UK grownup population could be obese by 2050. Besides fleshiness s deduction on wellness job, its economical deductions are besides significant. The NHS costs attributable to overweight and fleshiness are projected to duplicate to A ; lb ; 10 billion per twelvemonth by 2050. The wider costs to society and concern are estimated to make amp ; lb ; 49.9 billion per twelvemonth ( at today s monetary values ) . 3 Owing to its increasing prevalence in both development and developed states, associated morbidity and mortality, and the tremendous health care costs, fleshiness has become a major concern, therefore it has been a curative and research end for pharmaceutical companies to develop schemes to cut down the fleshiness epidemic every bit good as to develop safe and effectual antiobesity drugs. In this essay, we shall reexamine the current province of antiobesity drugs and their safety concerns, every bit good as highlight new curative marks and mechanisms by understanding the pathology / physiology of fleshiness. 1. Orlistat Orlistat ( Xenical ® ) has been licensed in the UK since September 1998 as an anti-obesity drug, and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in April 1999. Orlistat inhibits gastric and pancreatic lipases every bit good as the hydrolysis of dietetic triglycerides, ensuing in limited soaking up of monoglycerides and free fatty acids. The compound is a partially hydrated endogenous lipstatin produced by Streptomyces toxytricini. 6 It is usually indicated for patients with a BMI of = 30 kg/m2, or a BMI of = 28 kg/m2 in the presence of other hazard factors, such as high blood pressure, diabetes or lipemia. Orlistat is contraindicated in patients with chronic malabsorption syndrome or acholia, in gestation or piece breastfeeding every bit good as in patients with known hypersensitivity to orlistat.7 I. Efficacy in clinical tests In a recent published Cochrane reappraisal on the long term effects of sanctioned antiobesity medicines in clinical tests of at least one twelvemonth continuance, 16 orlistat surveies ( n = 10,631 ) , patients were either given orlistat 60 milligram, 120 milligram and placebo. Compared to placebo, orlistat reduced weight by 2.9 kilograms ( 95 % assurance interval ( Cl ) 2.5 to 3.2 kilogram ) was achieved. Active drug therapy showed patients were more likely to accomplish a 5 % and 10 % weight loss thresholds to that of placebo controlled weight losingss which were much lower in diabetic patients. Orlistat reduced diabetes incidence from 9.0 % to 6.2 % ( hazard ratio 0.63, 95 % CI 0.46 to 0.86 ) in the XENDOS test every bit good as improved entire cholesterin, LDL-cholesterol, blood force per unit area 1.5 millimeter Hg ( 95 % CI 0.9 to 2.2 millimeters Hg ; in 13 surveies ) and diastolic blood force per unit area decreases of 1.4 millimeters Hg ( 95 % CI 0.7 to 2.0 millimeters Hg ; in 12 surveies ) . , and glycaemic control in patients.8 II. Adverse effects Orlistat therapy was associated with GI ( GI ) events which were the most common side effects. In this reappraisal, the classification of the results and item of those who reported GI inauspicious side effects varied between tests. Over 80 % of orlistat treated patients were reported to hold experienced at least one GI side consequence, absolute frequence that was 24 % ( 95 % CI 20 % to 29 % ; 14 surveies ) higher than patients on placebo. The most normally reported GI events were fatty/oily stool, fecal urgency and oily staining, which occurred at frequence rate of 15 % to 30 % in most surveies. Approximately 5 % of these patients discontinued therapy due to GI side effects, which was 2 % ( 95 % CI 1 % to 3 % ; 12 surveies ) higher than patients taking placebo.8 2. Sibutramine Sibutramine ( Reductil ® ) is a centrally moving inhibitor of norepinephrine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, and to a lesser grade, Dopastat re-uptake, which was originally developed as an antidepressant nevertheless alternatively of it bettering temper, it led to weight loss. It acts chiefly as an appetency suppressant and it may besides increase energy outgo ensuing in weight loss during chronic intervention which usually occurs during the first six months. However farther intervention does non do farther weight loss but helps to keep organic structure weight. Due to chair consequence, the drug was approved by the FDA and introduced into the US market in 1997 and in the European Union in 1999.9 Sibutramine is indicated in patients with a BMI of 30 kg/m2 or more ( and no associated co-morbidity ) , or in those with a BMI of 27 kg/m2 or more in the presence of other hazard factors such as type-2 diabetes or hypercholesterolaemia. It is contraindicated in patients with uncontrolled high blood pressure, CHD, congestive bosom failure or shot. 7 I. Efficacy in clinical tests In a recent published Cochrane reappraisal on the long term effects of sanctioned antiobesity medicines in clinical tests of at least one twelvemonth continuance, 10 sibutramine surveies ( n = 2,623 ) , patients were either given dosage of sibutramine ranged between 10 to 20 milligrams, with the most common dosage being 15 milligram. In footings of weight loss, patients on sibutramine therapy lost 4.2 kilogram ( 95 % CI 3.6 to 4.7 kilograms ; 8 surveies ) or 4.3 % ( 95 % CI 3.7 % to 5.0 % ; 10 surveies ) more weight than those taking placebo.8 In patients with diabetes, sibutramine reduced weight by 5.0 % ( 95 % CI 3.8 to 6.2 % ; 3 surveies ) or 4.9 kilograms ( 95 % CI 3.6 kilogram to 6.2 kilograms ; 3 surveies ) compared to placebo therapy.10 Overall, alterations in glycaemic parametric quantities were inconsistent and were non significantly different from placebo in any survey even in patients with diabetes when reported. Sibutramine was besides found to increase HDL cholesterin degrees by 0.04 mmol/L ( 95 % CI 0.01 to 0.08 mmol/L ; 5 surveies ) and cut down triglyceride degrees by 0.18 mmol/L ( 95 % CI 0.07 to 0.30 mmol/L ; 4 surveies ) compared to placebo-treated patients.8 II. Adverse effects Common side effects observed during sibutramine intervention are concern, dry oral cavity, irregularity, and insomnia. It besides causes a dose-related addition in blood force per unit area. The average addition in blood force per unit area was found to be about 2mm Hg systolic and diastolic at the 15 milligram dosage. Although the consequence is modest, it has been estimated that a 2mm Hg alteration in diastolic blood force per unit area can increase the hazard of coronary bosom disease by 6 % and the hazard of shot by 15 % .11 In the same Cochrane reappraisal as above, sibutramine was found to hold increased systolic blood force per unit area by 1.7mmHg ( 95 % CI 0.1 to 3.3 millimeters Hg ; 7 surveies ) , diastolic blood force per unit area by 2.4 millimeters Hg ( 95 % CI 1.5 to 3.3 millimeters Hg ; 7 surveies ) and pulse rate by 4.5 beats/min ( 95 % CI 3.5 to 5.6 beats/min ; 7 surveies ) compared to placebo. 8 Recently the European Medicines Agency ( EMA ) completed a reappraisal on sibutramine on a big clinical test to see whether the cardiovascular hazards of sibutramine outweigh its benefits. The SCOUT test carried out was a randomized, dual blind, placebo controlled survey in which about 10,000 corpulent and fleshy patients with cardiovascular disease and/or type 2 diabetes were treated for over 6 old ages. Consequences showed that patients had a 16 % increased hazard of cardiovascular inauspicious events such as myocardial infarction and shot compared with placebo treated patients ( hazard ratio 1 ·161 [ 95 % CI 1 ·029-1 ·311 ] ; p=0 ·016 ) . Furthermore, silbutramine decreased organic structure weight by about 2 4 kilogram more than placebo which may non be maintained after halting. Therefore this test concluded that the benefit of sibutramine as a weight loss assistance does non outweigh the cardiovascular hazards doing sibutramine to be SUSPENDED from the market until farther tests have been carried out.12 Although surveies in this Cochrane reappraisal showed a positive intervention consequence, morbidity and mortality end points is considered to be an of import step, as a favorable benefit/risk ratio of antiobesity drugs which cause weight loss may non better results for long term intervention of obesity.8 FUTURE PHARMACOLOGICAL TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT Current available antiobesity drugs are modestly effectual, nevertheless they may be associated with unacceptable and life endangering inauspicious effects. As a consequence there is a turning demand for pharmaceutical companies to happen effectual, safe and good tolerated antiobesity drugs. In this subdivision we will look at the possible molecular marks for antiobesity drugs in assorted phases of the presymptomatic and clinical development. As discussed above, fleshiness arises as a consequence of how the organic structure regulates energy intake/absorption, energy outgo and energy storage. The size of organic structure fat shops hence is determined by the net balance between energy consumption and outgo over an drawn-out period of clip. The energy consumption and energy outgo can be used as an attack to develop new antiobesity drugs. ( Table 3 ) 13 Appetite or repletion are usually influenced by peripheral signal by direct effects on certain countries of the encephalon or by indirect effects via the pneumogastric nervus, or both. The signals usually originate from the adipose tissue ( adiposeness signals ) or the GI piece of land ( repletion signals ) . Leptin which is an adiposity signal is chiefly responsible for the long-run ordinance of energy balance whereas repletion signals are usually involved in the short-run ordinance from GI piece of land. The different signals are integrated in the hypothalamus and can besides modulate each other s efficaciousness and sensitivity.14 Leptin being the most of import adiposeness signal Acts of the Apostless on specific receptors in the hypothalamus and the rhombencephalon. In the hypothalamus, leptin receptor activation leads to the stimulation of nerve cells incorporating pro-opiomelanocortin and cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript every bit good as the suppression of nerve cells bring forthing neuropeptide Y ( NPY ) and Agouti-related protein. The downstream pathways besides plays an of import function in the ordinance of energy balance. Activation of hypothalamic melanocortin-4 receptors leads to appetite suppression. Amongst other GI endocrines, ghrelin, which is produced from the tummy, is the lone appetite-stimulating peptide. Ghrelin acts straight on NPY nerve cells in the hypothalamus but besides through the pneumogastric sensory nerves. Several enteric peptides such as cholecystokinin ( CCK ) , pancreatic polypeptide ( PP ) and glucagon-like peptide 1 ( GLP-1 ) are known to increase repletion during and after a repast. 14 Besides that, peptide YY and oxyntomodulin are besides thought to act upon repletion by chiefly moving on the hypothalamus. POTENTIAL FUTURE THERAPY FOR OBESITY 1. Cardinal targets/ hypothalamic Mediators. I. Leptin Leptin is a endocrine which is released from the adipocytes that conveys message of energy handiness to the hypothalamus. Leptin lack leads to severe fleshiness. It acts by agencies of its receptor to trip a Janus kinase/ signal transduction and interlingual rendition ( JAK/STAT ) system, which finally leads to the reduced look of neuropeptide Y ( NPY ) , a powerful appetency stimulation, and increased look of anorectic neuropeptides.15 Leptin generated a batch of intense involvement as a possible therapy nevertheless no agonists of leptin receptors are presently in clinical development since it has shown dissatisfactory consequences in certain tests carried out in corpulent patients which is thought to be caused by leptin opposition found in most of these patients.16 However, mechanisms involved in the development of leptin opposition could go possible mark for future drug development. II. Neuropeptide Y ( NPY ) After the failure of in obesity drug development, the tracts downstream of leptin e.g. NPY and melanocortins became a focal point in the drug find. Decreased encephalon leptin/insulin activity may excite NPY/AgRP axis and conversely decrease POMC/CART axis, therefore taking to an addition in feeding and lessening in energy outgo therefore advancing weight addition. However, farther development of NPY adversaries decreased after several surveies carried out in smasher mice. Surveies showed neither the riddance of NPY nor that of its of import receptor subtypes, NPY 1 or NPY 5, resulted in a thin phenotype.17 These observations concluded NPY adversaries as an uneffective curative attack to fleshiness. III. Melanocortins Surveies and clinical tests showed that melanocortin system plays an of import function in the ordinance of energy balance. Break of melanocortin system in genetically modified mice either by extinguishing the endogenous agonist a-MSH, by over showing its endogenous adversary AgRP, or by strike harding out the MC-4 receptor, resulted in obesity.18 Mutation of the MC-4 receptor in worlds led to the most frequent signifier of fleshiness which was accounted for up to 5 % of all terrible cases.19 Besides its consequence in decrease of nutrient consumption, MC-4 receptor agonists besides increased blood force per unit area and bosom rate, and these effects can non be separated from that of appetency reduction.20 Recent surveies have shown that signalling tracts appear to diverge downstream of the MC-4 receptor, therefore these tracts could be attractive mark for selective pharmacological effects. 2.Central targets/ Gut Hormones. I. Peptide YY ( PYY ) PYY decreases nutrient consumption which is thought to move at NPY Y2 receptors in the encephalon. Unlike leptin, PYY degrees are lower in corpulent patients ( i.e. no opposition ) hence could be an attractive mark. PYY-36 which is release in response to a repast in the big bowel, is considered to be the chief circulating signifier of PYY.21 This endocrine can non be administered orally because of its proteinaceousnature. Currently, Phase II tests have been carried out at Nastech to prove its suitableness for intranasal bringing, nevertheless its appetite-lowering efficaciousness in patients is still doubted. II. Ghrelin Ghrelin is produced in the tummy, bowel, pituitary and perchance hypothalamus and may trip the growing endocrine secretagogue receptor. Ghrelin secernment increased during starvation additions nutrient consumption. Adversaries or reverse agonists of ghrelin receptors can be of import marks to cut down the frequence of meals.22 Ghrelin antagonist GHS- R1a is presently in development and is orally available. Clinical tests are being carried out to demo whether it causes weight loss. III. GLP -1 GLP-1 is known to increase insulin secernment while diminishing glucagon secernment. It besides delays stomachic voidance and reduces nutrient intake ensuing in an betterment in diabetic patient s blood glucose degrees. Therefore GLP -1 parallel like exenatide is another utile agent for patients with fleshiness. However GLP-1 is quickly inactivated by the enzyme dipeptidyl protease IV ( DPP IV ) hence inhibitors of DPP IV like vildagliptin may be usage in fleshy patients, nevertheless the extent to which weight loss is achieved with DPP-IV remains ill-defined compared to GLP -1 injectable parallels. 23 3.Peripheral targets/ Energy Expenditure. Increasing energy outgo through physical activity or by diminishing energy consumption is of import in accomplishing weight decrease in corpulent patients. ? 3 Adrenergic agonists may increase heat production by increasing the look of decoupling protein 1 ( UCP 1 ) through effects on fat cell chondriosomes and therefore cut downing organic structure fat.24 Early on clinical tests have suggested hapless selectivity of A ; szlig ; 3 receptor agonists therefore exciting other amp ; szlig ; receptors including A ; szlig ; 1 receptors in the bosom ensuing in increased bosom rate. No drug so far has progressed beyond stage II tests, nevertheless surveies are still being carried on to seek for selective agents that can increase fatty acerb oxidization in adipose tissue while avoiding cardiovascular side effects.24 Decision With a high increasing figure of clinical tests carried out, the limited compounds in the market shows that the hunt for antiobesity agent is really hard. Presently most of the research concentrates on the development of drugs which cut down energy consumption by aiming appetite suppression or diminishing enteric lipid soaking up. As the attempt to increase energy outgo does non look to be effectual, the following possible purpose is to diminish energy storage by straight aiming adipose tissue. Presently, long term weight decrease can merely be achieved by lifestyle alterations every bit good as increase physical activity and dietetic steps. Although it is really hard for patients to keep it, it is the best manner in the long tally as it reduces hazard of morbidity and mortality from fleshiness related diseases. 25

Why did the United States become an Imperial power during the late Research Paper

Why did the United States become an Imperial power during the late 1800's-early 1900's - Research Paper Example The term imperialism is of great importance in the field of politics yet it is defined as the endeavor of a country towards its expansion which is based on military strength or other back door efforts which are backed by the reason of local dissatisfaction, unelected government in place, or other various issues which makes it a ground enough for the invading country to infiltrate and dictate its terms and conditions. It is often termed as the coercive relationship establishment by overthrowing of the existing setup and bringing about the setup that is of less resistance to the occupying forces (Lenin, 93). Imperialism like other forces of social acts, comes with its pros and cons, the element of freeing its citizens from its oppressors is a blessing in disguise, while occupying the land, using its resources to own benefits, violating its sovereignty is the downside of the entire affair. The positive side is the expansion of markets, the businessmen get to invest in new markets, new c apitals, and hence more chance of prosperity and economic stability. Over all the imperialism concept comes blended with its positives and negatives. It does not have to be pure and direct means of all out war, many a times, and the pulse is controlled through diplomatic ties, indirect perks and protections. Hence Imperialism is not just the name of military offensive and battle field stories. Its scope is relatively wide, even proxy wars are inside the scope of this phenomenon. The American Mexican war that was fought in mid 19th century (1846) is termed as an example of American imperialism (Eisenhower). The importance of the moves made in middle 19th century and beginning of 20th century was largely capitalized in the War World One and World War Two. All these annexed nations provided strategic grounds against hostile nations. Spanish American war is another glimpse of American Imperialism. Spaniards were easily humbled in this account and this was fought just round the corner of new millennium when the world was entering into 20th century. This was of high significance since it resulted in United States of America over powering Philippines, Cuba and Puerto Rico. Spain had to withdraw from this region and America was in good health to look after the neighboring nations and maintain its hegemony in the region. Many a times the democracy and freedom cry are coated in the real motive of strategic advantage seeking. This is done through ousted of some existing outsiders. The Cuban war in the end of century was an example of this kind when the Spaniards were sent out their way and limited to continent Europe. Building the Panama Canal: Panama Canal is another point of significance that had its importance towards the interest of American navy. They through the battle with Spain subdued this region which rightly served the interest of American navy. This was the building bridge towards control in both the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean. Large numbers of marines were s ent over for this purpose through the formal approval of the political and administrative heads. Again, this was done to mitigate any danger that the American navy faced by coming from other direction. Seeking its on interest and safety, another step in the name of imperialism, yet it was the order of the day and had to be done to ensure the safety of its personnel. Columbia on this account backed out right at the eleventh hour and the administration of America had to take punitive steps to ensure the accomplishment. Panama which was under the control of Columbians, was supported sufficiently enough by the Americans to create a uproar for their independence

Law report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Law report - Essay Example However, these reports are restricted in that they provide little information about the characteristics of crimes, victims, offenders or arrests. Consequently, the use of these data in research and policy analysis is not adequate. According to Mawby (pg 38), burglary is a crime which involves entrance into a building for the purposes of committing an offence. In most cases the offence involves theft, but most field specify others which fall within the realm of burglary. For an offense to be classified as burglary, the use of force to gain entry need not have take place. In this relation, the uniform crime reports Program has three sub classifications for burglary which include forceful entrance, illegal entrance where no force is used, and attempted forceful entrance. The crime rate in New York has steadily declined over the past 10 years. As of 2009, New York City has the lowest crime rate among the ten largest cities in the United States. Since 1991, the city has seen a continuous nineteen year trend of decreasing crime. Neighboring cities that were once considered unsafe are now much safer. The largest reductions in crime rate were reported for motor vehicle theft and burglary. In general, the rate of crimes in New York per100, 000 occupant populations has gone down 33% since 1998. Overall, in about 84% of all burglaries, the offender gained entry into the victims' residence or other building on the property. According to the uniform crime reports, the New York burglary rates since 1960 to 2009 has gone down. In 1960, the number was at 183,443 which went on increasing until 1980 where it was at its peak (360,925). From then, the number started declining and was at 65,735 in 2008. However, given that crime is illegal, measurements of burglary i n New York City are likely to be inaccurate. In reference to a study carried out by Shadrack in 2009, most burglars in New York City are jobless and are males who engage in drug abuse. They are usually between the ages of 21-35 years. However, a few cases of female burglars have been reported. This is in support of the national data of The Uniform Crime reports which indicates 82% male burglars. Question 2: Robbery in Chicago and Detroit On the other hand, Chicago and Detroit have adversely been affected by various forms of robbery over the past years. However, the number has declined due to some strategic measures which have been put into place. In essence, robbery involves application of force or a real threat of force used to rob money or property from a victim (Zimring and Zuel 24). Robbery ranges from purse-snatch and heist in the street or home by hijacking and bank, it is therefore known as a versatile and multifarious crime. According to the Uniform crime reports, the robbery cases reported as of 2009 in Chicago (200,098) and Detroit (198,054) show a significant decline from previous years. This has also been attributed to policing forces which have been put into place. According to McClain (34), since robbery is an avaricious offense and one involving personal confrontation, both the law and criminal statistics show confusion in classifying it. Some penal classifications, such as the one used in federal statutes, place robbery among property offenses.